For related Blog article see “Wanted: FIFTY NEGROES” for involuntary experimentation; includes additional information about other research as well and other forms of virtual slavery that continues to this day.
When I haltingly voiced my fears to an African American acquaintance who had worked as a ward clerk in the nephrology unit, she looked at me as if I were not too bright and minced no words, “Girl, black people don’t get organs they give organs.” During our ensuing debate, she pointed out to me that the race bias in the hospital where we worked should have resolved any doubts: in the early 1980s, most of the black employees worked in housekeeping and clerical support. Blacks were noticeably scarce among the administration and medical staffs. Why, she asked, was I naïve enough to believe that racial bias stopped at the staffing roster? (Harriet Washington “Medical Apartheid” 2007 p.15)
What constitutes medical experimentation? The word experiment from the Latin proposition ex, meaning “from” or “out of,” and pericuhan “a (dangerous) trial.” (Harriet Washington “Medical Apartheid” 2007 p.55)
Not until Wilhelm Roentgen discovered X rays in 1895 could physicians view the body's interior without invasive surgery. ...
Sam’s version of events is not recorded, so we don’t know whether more than fear of pain caused him to balk at surgery. …. If Sam had gotten wind of Sim’s dismal surgical statistics, his famed fondness for forced experimentation on captive patients, or his penchant for taking shoemakers’ tools to black infant’s skulls, Sam’s opinion of Sim’s skill would have sunk low indeed. But he would not have dared to openly voice doubts about Sim’s abilities, so refusing treatment because of “the pain” may have been a canny dodge.
However Sam was enslaved, so the decision was not left to him but to his owner, who was eager to return his slave to profitable work. ….
Staging Disease: Treatment Under the Microscope
There were many Sams. Like circuses, clinics and hospitals had an abundance of uses for the displayed African American body. After the mid-nineteenth century, a supply of black bodies was key to the primacy of the hospital as the new center for American medical instruction and treatment. African Americans filled medical school rosters as well as circus tents, because medical teaching, training, and research utilized black bodies disproportionately, and in some southern venues, they were used exclusively.
During the 1830s, a Dr. T. Stillman ran serial advertisements in the Charleston Mercury for his infirmary, in which he principally treated skin diseases. On October 12, 1838, he made a fascinating addendum: “Wanted: FIFTY NEGROES. Any person having sick Negroes, considered incurable by their respective physicians and wishing to dispose of them …. The highest cash prize will be paid upon application as above.”
Slaves who had become too old of too sick to work supplied the bulk of hospital “clinical material.” They enjoyed no legal rights and could mount no legal challenge to their incarceration and treatment. Stillman advertised his desire for blacks who suffered from disorders far beyond his own specialty, such as apoplexy, kidney disease, and stomach, intestinal, bladder, liver, and spleen disorders, as well as scrofula and hypochondriasm. He wished to test new techniques and medications he had formulated on debilitated and chronically unhealthy blacks in the same institution where he treated paying whites. He then marketed the medications and techniques. (Harriet Washington “Medical Apartheid” 2007 p.102-3)
Most physicians chose to simply ignore these inconvenient contradictions, just as they had ignored the illogic of transposing experimental medical results from African Americans to whites. ….
There are wild tribes of men who can oppose the first or large toe to the other four, just as if it was a thumb. (Harriet Washington “Medical Apartheid” 2007 p.108-15)
(Harriet Washington “Medical Apartheid” 2007 p.112-3)
At first blush, robbing black graveyards to fill white anatomists laboratories appears a purely racial issue. But men like Grandison Harris complicated the picture, (Harriet Washington “Medical Apartheid” 2007 p.122-3)
Meet Grandison Harris, the Grave Robber Enslaved (and then Employed) By the Georgia Medical College 05/06/2014
Grave robbers supplied medical schools with cadavers 11/14/2011
Medical science requires “anatomical subjects,” it is not fitting the dignity nor the sensibilities of white men to use their dead bodies for such purposes. (Harriet Washington “Medical Apartheid” 2007 p.128-31)
I strove to depart, but something formed a bond of association between that dead nigger baby and myself, which held me to my place, my gaze riveted upon it. I wanted just such a subject - one I could carry up in my private room and dissect whilst I was waiting for my meals - something to wile away my tedious hours with –
On impulse he steals the body, hides it beneath his coat, and darts into the street, where he unexpectedly encounters his intended and her father and collides with them spilling the dead black baby at their feet. “My cloak opened as I fell, and the force of the fall bursting its envelope, out, in all its hideous realities, rolled the infernal imp of darkness upon the gaze of the laughing, but now horrified spectators. (Harriet Washington “Medical Apartheid” 2007 p.136-7)
Original Source: Henry Clay Lewis, Odd Leaves from the Life of a Louisiana Swamp Doctor
Perhaps the unkindest blow of all was delivered by Thomas Jefferson's grandson in 1831, when he introduced a bill to the Virginia legislature to abolish slavery. It was defeated by only seven votes. (Harriet Washington “Medical Apartheid” 2007 p.144-5)
For example, Speaker recalls, "At some point we learned that although we had given instructions to stop the experiment, HEW had not done anything yet and the experiment was still being conducted. That's when we had our mini-revolt. What I remember saying was 'Stop fucking around. Let's do something!' (Harriet Washington “Medical Apartheid” 2007 p.174-7)
In a great measure the development and our endorsement of the FTA-ABS test rested on Tuskegee sera.”45
The tests were marketed globally and became quite profitable for the U.S. government because its contract with Alabama's (Harriet Washington “Medical Apartheid” 2007 p.178-9)
"The Mississippi Appendectomy" The Pill may have been flawed and the IUD deadly, but these methods were at least quasi-voluntary and their effects were (Harriet Washington “Medical Apartheid” 2007 p.202-5)
On a dewy spring morning in 1945, Robert S. Stone M.D. a usually quit deliberate professor of radiology, burst into a neighboring office at the government’s Oak Ridge, Tennessee nuclear facility shouting, “Karl, you remember that nigger truck driver that had that accident some time ago.” "Yes, I remember." Dr. Karl Z. Morgan, director of the Oak Ridge Health Physics Division (Harriet Washington “Medical Apartheid” 2007 p.216-7)
"A Little of the Buchenwald Touch" The United States also chose to seek Nazi expertise. In 1945, the U.S. State Department, army intelligence, and the OSS, the immediate forerunner of ...
Between 1951 and 1956, for example, German physiologist and former Nazi Herbert Gerstner supervised a total body irradiation (TBI) (Harriet Washington “Medical Apartheid” 2007 p.228-35)
Black Body Radiation "In more cases than not, the victims are African Americans. You're dealing with a majority of people of African (Harriet Washington “Medical Apartheid” 2007 p.240-1)
I am disturbed that the World Medical Association is now hedging on its clause about [not] using criminals as experimental material. One of the nicest [American] scientists I know was heard to say, “Criminals in our penitentiaries are fine experimental material — and much cheaper than chimpanzees.” (Harriet Washington “Medical Apartheid” 2007 p.244)
cited in Appendix 65b - Voluntary Manslaughter
numerous additional Google excerpts including three more books
Nazis, Human Experimentation and Diet Coke
In 1998, Allen Hornblum published Acres of Skin, which documents the abusive experimentation conducted at Philadelphia’s Holmesburg Prison complex by Dr. Albert Kligman between the 1950s and 1970s. “Most of the research was practiced upon African American men,” says Hornblum. …..
…. Dow Chemical Company also paid Kligman to test dioxin, a suspected carcinogen, which he applied to the skin of seventy prisoners, mostly black. …..
Twenty-four years later, when Acres of Skin was published, many former subjects realized for the first time that they had rights as experimental subjects and could sue the University of Pennsylvania, Kligman’s home institution despite the indemnification waivers that some had signed. In September 2000, 298 former Holmesburg prisoners filed a class action lawsuit against the University, Johnson & Johnson, Dow Chemical Company, Dr. Kligman and his company — Ivy Research Labs — and the city of Philadelphia. (Harriet Washington “Medical Apartheid” 2007 p.248-53)
(Harriet Washington “Medical Apartheid” 2007 p.252-3)
By the 1970s, research in prisons began to disappear, succumbing to scandals that unmasked the racially unbalanced, abusive, dangerous, and scientifically sloppy nature of experimentation with prisoners. ….
Some of the bitterest prison battles were physical as well as verbal, causing the almost universally white investigators to fear for their safety. Dr. Sigmund Weitzman described being slammed against the wall by six-foot four-inch, 250-pound Roy “Tiger” Williams, a black inmate at Holmesburg who had lost his hair after testing a shampoo formulation. “I was scared to death. He threatened to kill me.” (Harriet Washington “Medical Apartheid” 2007 p.264-5)
After such interviews, psychological assessments, and physical screenings, the researchers winnowed the original 126 study candidates to 66 boys, including Isaac, in several related fenfluramine studies. …… Thirty-four of the boys in Isaac's group were given fenfluramine.
... injuries circulated well before the FDA ban and during Columbia's studies. (Harriet Washington “Medical Apartheid” 2007 p.274-6) 275-6 missing from Google
He did do by comparing inner city boys—young blacks—to rhesus monkeys in the jungle.
If you look, for example, at male monkeys, especially in the wild, roughly half of them survive to adulthood. The other half die by violence. That is the natural way of it for males, to knock each other off and in fact, there are some interesting evolutionary implications of that because the same hyperaggressive monkeys who kill each other are also hypersexual, so they copulate more to offset the fact that more of them are dying.
Now, one could say that if some of the loss of social structure in this society, and particularly within the high impact inner-city areas, has removed some of the civilizing evolutionary things that we have built up and that may be it isn't just the careless use of the word when people call certain areas of certain cities jungles, that we may have gone back to what might be more natural, without all the social controls that we have imposed upon ourselves as a civilization over thousands of years in our evolution. (Harriet Washington “Medical Apartheid” 2007 p.288-9)
KK1 researchers simultaneously encouraged landlords of approximately 125 tainted housing units to rent to families with young children by paying for the lead abatement if the landlords rented to such families. They met with chilling success. When the KKI drew blood from one- year-old Ericka Grimes on April 9, 1993, ….
The IRB was willing to aid researchers in getting around federal regulations designed to protect children used as subjects in non-therapeutic research. An IRB's primary role is to assure the safety of human research subjects - not help researchers avoid safety or health-related requirements. ….
Unfortunately, a black child is more likely than a white one to have his parent completely removed from the informed-consent equation. Black children are far more likely than whites to be institutionalized, in which case the parents are often unable to consent freely or are not consulted at all. (Harriet Washington “Medical Apartheid” 2007 p.292-5)
Maryland Court Imposes Judicial Review on Non-Therapeutic Research on Children - Grimes v. Kennedy Krieger Institute, Inc., 366 Md. 29, 782 A.2d 807 (Md. 2001)
In the age of the technological fix, this country is heading for genetic and behavioral control of society. Who will exercise the control? Who will make the decisions about which genes are defective and which behavior abnormal? Who will make the decisions about the genetic worth of prospective human beings? Jonathan Beckwith, 1974 (Harriet Washington “Medical Apartheid” 2007 p.299)
NitroMed explained that only physiology could explain such a dramatic disparity in the death rate. In doing so, BiDil’s promoters discount the well-substantiated research into …..
… study should have included whites in order to provide evidence that the drug works differently in blacks, but because the patents for use in all races will expire in 2007, there is no economic incentive to test the drug in whites. (NitroMed will hold the patent for the use of BiDil in blacks until 2020.) In an ironic twist, whites are being subjected to racial exclusion by being denied access to testing or use of a heart drug that could benefit them or even save their lives. (Harriet Washington “Medical Apartheid” 2007 p.321-3)
Doctors invoke disease resistance to explain why they must reluctantly force treatment upon the drug-resistant such as Ellison. They explain that compared to the earlier, slowly progressing version that took years to contract and develop, today's TB bugs propagate quickly, promiscuously, and with greater lethality. ….
…. Then an infected white corrections officer died. (Harriet Washington “Medical Apartheid” 2007 p.327-9)
Thirty-six experiments were conducted at the ICC between 1997 and 2003, and GlaxoSmithKline sponsored four of these. The center’s experimental activities are not unique or even unusual for New York, according to the BBC, whose documentary Guinea Pigs Kids noted “over 23,000 of the city’s children are either in foster care or independent homes run mostly by religious organizations on the behalf of the local authorities, and almost 99 percent are black of Hispanic.” (Harriet Washington “Medical Apartheid” 2007 p.332-7)
"As Consumers, We are Guinea Pigs": Vermont Set to Become First State to Require GMO Food Labeling
Guinea Pig Kids: How New York City is Using Children to Test Experimental AIDS Drugs
We’re All Guinea Pigs I don't want to expose the most precious people in my life to an endocrine disruptor. by Jill Richardson
Despite U.S. insistence that it was only developing defensive biological weapons, the Central Intelligence Agency in 1952entered into a partnership to produce chemical and biological weapons with first strike capability. The army’s Special Operations Division laboratories at Fort Detrick, Maryland, served as the site of the joint army-CIA program dubbed MK-NAOMI. …. It was in this atmosphere that Gottlieb oversaw the destruction of Agency and individual case files. In 1975, CIA director William Colby acknowledged that the Agency discarded most MK-ULTRA documents, including those of its subset MK-NAOMI, by 1973, rendering them “very incomplete.” …. Not until nearly 1980 did the Scientologists’ research group finish piecing together its research and publish a report, which detailed, among other things, how in 1955-1956 the residents of Florida’s Carver Village has been visited with a plague of Aedes aegypti mosquitoes. Swarms bred by the Army Chemical Corps at Fort Detrict, Maryland, carried among other things, yellow fever and dengue fever. (Harriet Washington “Medical Apartheid” 2007 p.360-5)
(Harriet Washington “Medical Apartheid” 2007 p.364)
But at the Brentwood Mail Processing and distribution Center facility in Washington D.C., where 92 percent of the 2,646 workers were black, letters contaminated with Bacillus anthracus spores were processed by both machines and human handlers. …. …. Washington D.C., health director Ivan C.A. Walks …. “”There was a public perception that people on Capital Hill got treated quickly and effectively and lost no one, while the perception at Brentwood was that people were ignored and lost two co-workers,” said Walks. …. (Harriet Washington “Medical Apartheid” 2007 p.368-9)
One former security police officer testified to the Pretoria High Court that in 1989, Basson poisoned the Rev. Frank Chikane of the South African Council of Churches, a charismatic antiapartheid activist, by picking the lock of his suitcase and powdering the reverend’s underpants with toxins. ….. The CBWP’s ultimate goal was the development of a “pigmentation weapon” that would kill or harm only black people. As apartheid waned and the legal web closed upon Basson, his former associates say that he feverishly turned his attention to the production of the unthinkable —a deadly virus that would infect only blacks. (Harriet Washington “Medical Apartheid” 2007 p.372-5)
(Harriet Washington “Medical Apartheid” 2007 p.375)
During the height of a 1996 meningococcal meningitis epidemic, for example, scientists offered Pfizer’s experimental drug Trovan (floxacin) to terrified parents in Kamo, Nigeria. Nigerians desperate for medical attention grasped at Trovan’s straw. By the time the experiment ended, two hundred children were left deaf, lame, blind, seizure-ridden, disoriented, and with other severe disabilities. Eleven were dead. (Harriet Washington “Medical Apartheid” 2007 p.392-3)
also cited in Deadly Monopolies: The Shocking Corporate Takeover of Life Itself-and the consequences for your health and our medical future By Harriet A. Washington
Unlike the disastrous Third World research trends, medical research with black Americans has lost so much of its historically abusive nature that black Americans should embrace new medical research—after judicious inquiries of their own into any study they are considering. ….. The emergency room deaths began the very next year. On April 1, 1997, when the occupational Health and Hygiene Plan (OHHP) suspended a U.S. clinical trial that had enrolled unwitting patients in a clinical trial of diaspirin cross-linked hemoglobin (DCLHb) for treating shock. …. Once one loses the right to be told what one is about to undergo, to agree or to refuse participation, research policy gains momentum on a very slippery slope. (Harriet Washington “Medical Apartheid” 2007 p.396-9)
I challenge us to change, because as Charles Darwin once observed, “It is not the strongest species that will survive, not the most intelligent, but the one most responsive to change.” (Harriet Washington “Medical Apartheid” 2007 p.404)
Quote Investigator: It Is Not the Strongest of the Species that Survives But the Most Adaptable
Six things Darwin never said – and one he did
Padraig O'Malley's interviews: Special Investigation into Project Coast SOUTH AFRICA'S CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL WARFARE PROGRAMME INTRODUCTION
Harriet Washington “Medical Apartheid” PDF at Original People
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